The Indian Ambassador’s Garden (باغ سفیر هند) was a garden separated from the lands of the Mostowfi al-Mamalek Garden (باغ مستوفی‌الممالک) in Vanak.

The Mostowfi al-Mamalek Garden, a waqf garden belonging to Mirza Yusuf Mostowfi al-Mamalek (میرزا یوسف مستوفی‌الممالک), the renowned prime minister of Naser al-Din Shah, was well known in Vanak. This garden was also known as Bagh-e Laleh (باغ لاله) and Bagh-e Irani (باغ ایرانی) and contained the garden residence of Mirza Hasan Mostowfi al-Mamalek (میرزا حسن مستوفی‌الممالک), the son of Mirza Yusuf.

According to a registration report published in 1381 SH by the General Directorate of Cultural Heritage of Tehran Province, Mirza Yusuf Khan’s garden was originally very extensive, covering approximately 3.8 hectares. (Registration Report…, p. 3)

Later, the extensive lands of the garden were subdivided and separated from it—apparently by the heirs of Mirza Hasan Mostowfi al-Mamalek, or by others—and came into the ownership of various institutions and individuals:

Part of the southern grounds was converted into a public park (بوستان).

Khanom Pirouzan’s Garden (باغ خانم پیروزان), measuring 6,123 square meters, was located at the northeastern corner of the garden and is owned by the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps.

Dr. Zarrabi’s Garden (باغ دکتر ضرابی), measuring 6,000 square meters, was located in the eastern part of the garden and remains privately owned.

Indian Ambassador’s Garden (باغ سفیر هند), measuring 16,840 square meters, was located in the western part of the garden. It later came into the possession of Tamuchin Shahrokh (تموچین شاهرخ), a member of the family of Arbab Keykhosrow Shahrokh (ارباب کیخسرو شاهرخ) and a relative of Arbab Gashtasp Firouzgar (ارباب گشتاسب فیروزگر).

A garden belonging to the municipality occupied the southern frontage and has since been converted into a public park.

What currently remains in the ownership of the Mostowfi family is the central section of the garden, measuring 20,500 square meters. (Registration Report…, p. 3)

The main entrance to the garden is on its eastern side, on Saberi Street (خیابان صابری), while two other entrances are located on the northern and southern sides of the garden.

During the Naseri period, Vanak (ونک) was part of the Khaleseh Lands (املاک خالصه), that is, lands owned by the crown.

The Indian Ambassador’s Garden (باغ سفیر هند) was a garden separated from the lands of the Mostowfi al-Mamalek Garden (باغ مستوفی‌الممالک) in Vanak.

The Mostowfi al-Mamalek Garden, a waqf garden belonging to Mirza Yusuf Mostowfi al-Mamalek (میرزا یوسف مستوفی‌الممالک), the renowned prime minister of Naser al-Din Shah, was well known in Vanak. This garden was also known as Bagh-e Laleh (باغ لاله) and Bagh-e Irani (باغ ایرانی) and contained the garden residence of Mirza Hasan Mostowfi al-Mamalek (میرزا حسن مستوفی‌الممالک), the son of Mirza Yusuf.

According to a registration report published in 1381 SH by the General Directorate of Cultural Heritage of Tehran Province, Mirza Yusuf Khan’s garden was originally very extensive, covering approximately 3.8 hectares. (Registration Report…, p. 3)

Later, the extensive lands of the garden were subdivided and separated from it—apparently by the heirs of Mirza Hasan Mostowfi al-Mamalek, or by others—and came into the ownership of various institutions and individuals:

Part of the southern grounds was converted into a public park (بوستان).

Khanom Pirouzan’s Garden (باغ خانم پیروزان), measuring 6,123 square meters, was located at the northeastern corner of the garden and is owned by the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps.

Dr. Zarrabi’s Garden (باغ دکتر ضرابی), measuring 6,000 square meters, was located in the eastern part of the garden and remains privately owned.

Indian Ambassador’s Garden (باغ سفیر هند), measuring 16,840 square meters, was located in the western part of the garden. It later came into the possession of Tamuchin Shahrokh (تموچین شاهرخ), a member of the family of Arbab Keykhosrow Shahrokh (ارباب کیخسرو شاهرخ) and a relative of Arbab Gashtasp Firouzgar (ارباب گشتاسب فیروزگر).

A garden belonging to the municipality occupied the southern frontage and has since been converted into a public park.

What currently remains in the ownership of the Mostowfi family is the central section of the garden, measuring 20,500 square meters. (Registration Report…, p. 3)

The main entrance to the garden is on its eastern side, on Saberi Street (خیابان صابری), while two other entrances are located on the northern and southern sides of the garden.

During the Naseri period, Vanak (ونک) was part of the Khaleseh Lands (املاک خالصه), that is, lands owned by the crown.

Although women were socially absent to a considerable extent during the Qajar period, they entered the public sphere, to a greater or lesser degree, during the Constitutional era. “Iranian women are conspicuously absent everywhere. If, from time to time, a few bold women are seen on Lalehzar Street (خیابان لاله‌زار), nothing can be seen of them except a black chador and high-heeled shoes; even their faces are hidden behind veils made of black horsehair.” (Moʿtmedi, 1381 SH, p. 539)

At the shrine of Imamzadeh Davud (امامزاده داوود), several women were found staying together in a room without any men. The lutis told them: “Leave this room so that we can stay here.” They then attempted to force the women out. They pulled at their chadors and assaulted them, forcibly driving them from the room. The women began to cry out and scream, invoking, “O Mohammad! O religion!”

At that time, Ashraf al-Zakerin (اشرف‌الذاکرین) and Sadr al-Vaʿezin (صدرالواعظین), two prominent preachers, had come to the shrine on a pilgrimage. Hearing the women’s cries, they asked the lutis: “Why did you molest these women?” The lutis responded with verbal and physical abuse and assaulted these two respected men as well.

The two men then left Imamzadeh Davud (امامزاده داوود) and went to Nezamabad (نظام‌آباد), to the summer residence of Nezam al-Molk (نظام‌الملک), where they presented their complaint.

Nezam al-Molk (نظام‌الملک) realized that if he did not put a stop to such conduct and protect both the religious law and the state, the lutis of every neighborhood might cause disturbances the following day, with voices of protest rising from every quarter. The number of rebels would increase, while the republicans would intensify their folly, corruption, and disorder, ultimately plunging affairs into chaos.

He therefore sent stern officials and ordered Aqa Aziz (آقا عزیز), the leader of the lutis, along with several of his men, to appear in Tehran (تهران). They appeared and were interrogated. It was established that Aqa Aziz’s associates and followers had unjustly attempted to harass the women and insult the preachers.

Nezam al-Molk (نظام‌الملک), who was already aware of the lutis’ disorderly conduct, therefore ordered, in the interest of maintaining order and silencing the preachers, seyyeds, and religious scholars, that the chub-o-falak be brought. The attendants placed Aqa Aziz’s feet in the falak and began beating him with sticks.

(Afzal al-Molk, 1361 SH, p. 477)

Historians of this period have written that when the students of the engineering department of Dar al-Funun (دارالفنون), under the direction of their teacher, Monsieur Kresse (موسیو کرشش), drew a map of the city of Tehran for the first time and presented it to the Shah, they were awarded a prize of 3,000 tomans (تومان).

Source: Shamim, p. 399.

Many urban development measures undertaken after 1307 SH/1928 CE were part of a comprehensive urban-planning scheme prepared for the reconstruction of Tehran (تهران), modeled on European cities of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

Among these measures were the following:

The construction of new façades along the southern frontage of Topkhaneh Square (میدان توپخانه) and the conversion of Mashq Square (میدان مشق) into the National Garden (باغ ملی) in 1307 SH, followed by its transformation into an administrative complex, beginning around 1312 SH/1933 CE;

The conversion of the old cemetery next to Amin al-Sultan Square (میدان امین‌السلطان) into Ferdows Garden (باغ فردوس) in 1307 SH;

The construction of new façades around Hassanabad Square (میدان حسن‌آباد) in 1307 SH;

The beginning of an extensive program to widen streets and construct traffic circles at their intersections, starting in 1307 SH/1928 CE;

The construction of Cyrus (سیروس), Khayyam (خیام), and Buzarjomhri (بوذرجمهری) streets through the old, densely built-up areas within Tehran’s First Enclosure (حصار اول تهران), beginning in 1307–1308 SH;

The filling of the moat surrounding the city and the construction of broad, straight streets in its place; and

The construction of Karaj Water Boulevard (بلوار آب کرج), later known as Elizabeth Boulevard (بلوار الیزابت) and today as Keshavarz Boulevard (بلوار کشاورز), in 1311 SH/1932 CE.

The latter was only one section of the virtual enclosure and green transportation artery envisioned in the plan that was ultimately implemented.

Seyyed Mohammad Tabataba’i (سید محمد طباطبایی), in a letter addressed to Mozaffar al-Din Shah (مظفرالدین شاه), reproached and admonished him, warning him of the consequences of the severe crisis that had spread throughout the country. He explicitly stated that the only remedy was the establishment of constitutional government.

The attacks by preachers and orators in Tehran (تهران) intensified, and every day the voʿāz openly and severely attacked Ain al-Dawlah (عین‌الدوله). Secret societies opposing the government increased in number, and, generally speaking, the entire population demanded constitutional government.

Ain al-Dawlah (عین‌الدوله) exiled a number of political figures who opposed him. Haj Sheikh Mohammad Vaʿez (حاج شیخ محمد واعظ), one of Tehran’s prominent preachers, delivered sermons every day in the Sar-e Polak (سرپولک) neighborhood, denouncing Ain al-Dawlah.

Sheikh Mohammad Vaʿez (شیخ محمد واعظ) was arrested by soldiers, but the people, led by Seyyed Ahmad Behbahani (سید احمد بهبهانی), rescued him from the Cossack forces. The confrontation escalated into gunfire. During the incident, a theology student named Seyyed Abdolhamid (سید عبدالحمید) was killed, while several others, including Adib al-Zakerin (ادیب‌الذاکرین), were wounded.

Abdolhamid’s body was taken to the Jameh Mosque (مسجد جامع), and the Tehran Bazaar (بازار تهران) was closed. Thousands of people gathered in the mosque, including Seyyed Abdollah Behbahani (سید عبدالله بهبهانی), Seyyed Mohammad Tabataba’i (سید محمد طباطبایی), and Sheikh Fazlollah Nouri (شیخ فضل‌الله نوری).

Abdol Khan Nasr al-Saltaneh (عبدالخان نصرالسلطنه), the governor of Tehran, surrounded the mosque and prevented the people from leaving so that they would not enter the streets. The people nevertheless poured out of the mosque, and gunfire began. Nearly one hundred people were wounded.

Solid mineral materials composed of molecules, atoms, or ions that are arranged regularly in space or possess a crystalline structure are called crystals (بلور). Crystallization (تبلور) is a process through which crystalline materials are purified and obtained in a desired size. During crystallization, solid particles are formed from a homogeneous phase. This process may occur from a gas phase, as in the formation of snow, or from a liquid phase, through freezing or precipitation.

In general, crystallization is a solid–liquid separation technique. It is used to separate a dissolved solid completely from its solvent. Crystallization has wide applications in obtaining pure chemical substances under different conditions. One of the reasons for its widespread use is that crystals formed from a solution may contain impurities.

Crystal (بلور)

A crystal is the most highly organized form of inorganic matter. In fact, a crystal is a solid in which atoms, ions, or molecules are arranged in a regular pattern. Within a crystal, the constituent molecules, ions, or atoms are arranged in an orderly manner, and consequently the geometric form of a crystal is independent of its size.

As a crystal grows, each of its surfaces develops according to the same orderly pattern. If, under ideal conditions, a growing crystal maintains its geometric similarity, it is described as a geometrically invariant crystal (بلور تغییرناپذیر).

Crystal Production (تولید بلور)

Crystalline bodies are produced through a thermal process. During this process, changes in concentration and temperature are accompanied by changes in heat. Crystallization may take place either from a solution or from a molten substance.

During dissolution, the number of particles decreases or remains constant. In contrast, during crystallization, the number of particles that precipitate increases.

Stages of Crystal Production (مراحل تولید بلور)

In crystallization vessels, one of the most important factors in the crystallization process is the particle-size distribution (توزیع اندازه ذرات). Through interactions among particles, the rates of nucleation (هسته‌زایی) and crystal growth (رشد بلور) are determined, independently of the material and energy balances.

Nucleation and crystal growth do not normally occur in an unsaturated or saturated solution. Very small crystals may, however, be produced through abrasion and may subsequently grow when the solution becomes supersaturated.

When the crystal growth rate is low, as may occur in a highly viscous solution, considerable time is required for the solid and liquid phases to reach equilibrium.

Crystal formation takes place in two stages:

Formation of a new particle (ایجاد ذره جدید)

Growth of the particle until it reaches macroscopic size (رشد ذره تا رسیدن به اندازه ماکروسکوپی)

Origin of Crystals (منشاء بلورها)

The formation of crystal nuclei can be divided into three categories. Spontaneous nucleation (هسته‌زایی خودبه‌خودی) is a process that occurs with difficulty. Nevertheless, the formation of nuclei depends on random variations in concentration or temperature at the molecular scale.

If cooling occurs slowly, the nucleation rate is low, and the precipitated material is deposited on a small number of nuclei, resulting in relatively large crystals. If cooling is rapid, nucleation increases and a larger number of nuclei are formed, resulting in smaller crystals.

1. Pseudonucleation (هسته‌زایی کاذب)

Pseudonucleation occurs under conditions of high supersaturation or poor circulation of the magma (ماگما؛ سوسپانسیون بلوری). It is characterized by abnormal needle-like or spine-like projections resembling imperfect crystals at the ends of crystals.

2. Primary Nucleation (هسته‌زایی اولیه)

Very small crystals formed on the surfaces of crystal particles produced during other crystallization processes disappear rapidly and subsequently grow in a supersaturated solution. This condition is referred to as primary generation (نسل اولیه).

Primary nucleation is divided into t

wo types:

a. Homogeneous Nucleation (هسته‌زایی همگن)

In this type of nucleation, crystals form within a single phase in the absence of impurities. Nucleation occurs as a result of supersaturation. Except in certain precipitation reactions, this type of nucleation rarely occurs.

b. Heterogeneous Nucleation (هسته‌زایی ناهمگن)

This type of nucleation occurs in the presence of impurities or a catalyst (کاتالیست) in the solution.

3. Secondary Nucleation (هسته‌زایی ثانویه)

The formation of nuclei when crystals are already present in the magma is known as secondary nucleation (هسته‌زایی ثانویه). This type of nucleation is also divided into two categories:

a. Fluid-Shear Nucleation (هسته‌زایی ناشی از برش سیال)

This type of nucleation is caused by stresses resulting from fluid shear.

b. Contact Nucleation (هسته‌زایی تماسی)

This type of nucleation occurs when a crystal comes into contact with another object, such as the wall of a crystallizer (کریستالایزر), an agitator, or another crystal. It is the most common type of nucleation in industrial crystallization vessels.

Because contact nucleation occurs at relatively low supersaturation, it is proportional to the first power of supersaturation rather than the twentieth power or higher, as occurs in certain forms of primary nucleation. Consequently, it is easier to control during operation.

Under suitable conditions, nuclei may form simultaneously; in most cases, however, additional small crystalline particles are produced. Even small quantities of impurities may also act as nuclei.

The garden of Malek al-Ketab Rashti (ملک‌الکتاب رشتی) was located on the eastern side of Safara Street, also known as Ala al-Dowleh Street (present-day Ferdowsi Street). Later, part of the garden was purchased by the German government and another part by the Ottoman government, and the two properties became the sites of their respective embassies.

“The site of the present-day German Embassy, during the Naseri period, before the demolition of the Shah Tahmasp city walls, was a garden belonging to Malek al-Ketab Rashti, located opposite the garden of Ilkhani (see: Ilkhani),” (Mahboubi, p. 570).

The aforementioned garden was purchased by Mokhber al-Dowleh (مخبرالدوله) from Malek al-Ketab and was sold years later to the Germans and the Ottomans. His son, Mokhber al-Saltaneh (مخبرالسلطنه), recounts the story in his memoir Khatereh-ha va Khatarat (Memories and Dangers):

“Our house was in Chal Meydan. I remember nothing of it (I was six years old at the time)… At the encouragement of Yahya Khan, my father’s special adjutant, he purchased the garden of Malek al-Ketab Rashti. Opposite it was the garden of Allah-Qoli Khan Ilkhani, which is now the site of the National Bank and was sold to the German Embassy. There was a building at the corner opposite the National Bank, and ten to twelve thousand zareh of land was purchased in installments for six thousand tomans. My father took half, and my uncle, Niyer al-Molk, took the other half. A portion was also given to Mohammad-Hossein Khan Adib al-Dowleh, administrator of Dar al-Funun. The garden and residence of Niyer al-Molk is now the Ottoman Embassy, which has since become the Turkish Embassy. The British Embassy was the reason for the development of the area outside the city.”

(Hedayat, Khatereh-ha va Khatarat, p. 1.)

On page 149 of Tehran in the Mirror of Time, the garden of Malek al-Ketab is incorrectly identified as being west of Ferdowsi Street and as corresponding to the Ilkhani Garden, the site on which the National Bank was later built. This identification is erroneous.

When the map of Najm al-Dowleh (نجم‌الدوله) was drawn (surveyed in 1305 AH), the garden was already in the possession of the German Embassy; that is, Mokhber al-Dowleh had transferred the garden to the Germans before that date.

Establishment of the German Diplomatic Mission in Tehran

“For more than 100 years, Germany has maintained a diplomatic mission in Iran. On 11 June 1873, a Treaty of Friendship and Navigation was concluded between the German Empire and Iran. Among the provisions of this treaty was the establishment of permanent diplomatic missions in both countries. Eleven years after the conclusion of the treaty, on 20 October 1884, the first German diplomatic mission was established at the court of Naser al-Din Shah, and Ernst von Braunschweig was sent to Iran as Germany’s special representative.”

(German Embassy website.)

The first official German diplomatic delegation arrived in Tehran in Dhu al-Hijjah 1301 AH / September 1884. The members of the delegation were Ernst von Braunschweig, German Minister Plenipotentiary and Special Envoy; Brooks, Counselor of the Embassy; and two other embassy staff members.

After arriving in Iran, the delegation was received in Bandar-e Anzali by Mirza Reza Khan, General Adjutant (میرزا رضاخان جنرال آجودان) and escorted to Tehran. An official reception was held for them at Bagh-e Shah, and a building in Laleh-Zar Garden was also designated as their residence. (Iran, no. 557, pp. 1–2.)

Six months after the German delegation arrived in Tehran, the German government requested that its ambassador be permitted to reside permanently and officially in Iran. The Iranian government accepted the request. (Ibid., no. 572, pp. 1–2.)

According to the German Embassy’s account, the present German Embassy building, located in the heart of Tehran, was purchased ten years later by Count Schulenburg, a representative of the German Empire. The property was adjacent to the Turkish Embassy and near the British, Russian, and French emba

ssies as well as several important Iranian government buildings.

The two-story embassy building was constructed between 1302 and 1304 AH / 1884–1886 by a European architect. Ayn al-Saltaneh (عین‌السلطنه), however, states that the building was constructed by Sani al-Dowleh (صنیع‌الدوله), the son of Mokhber al-Dowleh. (Ayn al-Saltaneh, Vol. 1, pp. 685–686.)

The garden and building were leased to the German Embassy for approximately a decade. In 1310 SH / 1931 CE, the property was registered for the first time in the name of the German government.

The building was subsequently renovated several times by Germany and was demolished and rebuilt in 1937. In 1941, during the Second World War, the new embassy building was completed and ready for use. At that time, however, it was confiscated by the Iranian government. The Swedish Embassy then moved into the building, as Sweden was protecting German interests in Iran during the war.

In 1949, the property was transferred to the Americans, who used it until their own embassy building was completed in 1953. That year, the property was released from confiscation, but its ownership was ultimately transferred permanently to the Federal Republic of Germany in 1977.

(German Embassy website.)

The alley adjoining the southern side of the German Embassy, formerly known as Ajudanbashi (آجودانباشی) according to Najm al-Dowleh’s map of 1309 AH, was renamed Berlin (برلن).

“…the alley was named Berlin.” (Ayn al-Saltaneh, Vol. 9, p. 7231.)

The property used as the residence of the German ambassador, located in northern Tehran in the Elahieh area, was purchased in 1904. (German Embassy website.)

He was the son of Kamran Mirza (کامران میرزا), son of Naser al-Din Shah (ناصرالدین شاه). Firuz al-Dawlah (فیروزالدوله) was the administrator (mobasher) of Moniriyeh School (مدرسه منیریه). The school was located on Khayyam Street (خیابان خیام), shortly before Mohammadieh Square (میدان محمدیه), adjacent to the shrine of Seyyed Naser al-Din (بقعه سید ناصرالدین).

The founder of the school and the adjoining mosque was Monir al-Saltaneh (منیرةالسلطنه), commonly known as Monir al-Saltaneh (منیرالسلطنه), sister of the Vazir Nezam (وزیرنظام), wife of Naser al-Din Shah (ناصرالدین شاه), and mother of Kamran Mirza Na’ib al-Saltaneh (کامران میرزا نایب‌السلطنه). Following the death of Vazir Nezam (وزیرنظام), since he had no children, his inheritance passed to her. From this inherited estate, she established the school and a mosque adjacent to it. The school was completed in 1311 AH.

Originally, there had been a tekyeh adjacent to the shrine of Imamzadeh Seyyed Naser al-Din (امامزاده سید ناصرالدین), where mourning ceremonies and rowzeh-khani were held. Because the site had fallen into disrepair, Monir al-Saltaneh (منیرالسلطنه), following a religious ruling (fatwa) by Mirza Mohammad-Hasan Ashtiani (میرزا محمدحسن آشتیانی), converted it into a school and endowed properties in Tehran (تهران) and Mazandaran (مازندران) for its maintenance.

Moniriyeh School (مدرسه منیریه) had thirty-one cells, a library, and a teacher. Two theology students (talabeh) lived in each cell. Each cell received three rials per month for kerosene, while each student received twenty rials per month. The prayer leader and teachers were paid one hundred rials per month. On all religious festivals, each person received a plate of sweets and a two-thousand-dinar gold coin; coal was also provided during the winter.

During the reign of Reza Shah (رضاشاه), as a result of the widening of Khayyam Street (خیابان خیام), formerly known as Jalilabad (جلیل‌آباد), Moniriyeh School (مدرسه منیریه) fell within the new street alignment and was demolished. Only the school and several cells remained.

According to Balaghi (بلاغی), writing around 1350 SH, the school had by then become a coal-storage place for local shopkeepers, while the books from its library had been piled into one of the cells, whose door had been plastered shut for many years. Its administrator was Firuz al-Dawlah (فیروزالدوله), son of Kamran Mirza Na’ib al-Saltaneh (کامران میرزا نایب‌السلطنه).

(Balaghi, Tarikh-e Tehran, pp. 186–187; Seddiqi-Saha, pp. 496–497; Akbari, pp. 184, 229; Hosseini Tehrani, vol. 1, pp. 105–108.)